AGRICULTURAL 

CATECHISM 


A  TEXTBOOK 
BY  A  TEACHER 


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tauAMf 

wertA 


EX  LIBRIS 


CLASS  OF  1886;  PH.D.  THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY 


C375.63 


G73a 


FOR  USE  ONLY  IN 


THE  NORTH  CAROLINA  COLLECTION 


Form  No.  A-368 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2019  with  funding  from 
University  of  North  Carolina  at  Chapel  Hill 


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ire e  u  / 4-u  t*  C 

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AN 


*  OR, 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FARMING  MADE  EASY. 


A  TEXT  BOOK 


FOR 


THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA. 


BY  A  TEACHER. 


WILMINGTON,  N.  C.: 


ENOELHARD  k  PRICE,  STEAM  POWER  PRESS  PRINTERS, 
JOURNAL  BUILDINGS. 

1867. 


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Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1867,  by 

B.  F.  Grady,  Jr., 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  f 
the  District  of  Cape  Fear,  in  the  District  of  North  Carolina. 


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Contents. 


3SSON  First:  Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature, . Page  7 

:sson  Second  :  Structure  and  Composition  of  the  Earth’s 

Crust, . “  8 

csson  Third  :  How  Plants  are  supplied  with  Moisture, 

Potash,  &c., .  “  10 

:sson  Fourth:  Potation  of  Crops,  Ac., .  “  12 

:sson  Fifth  :  Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere  and  of 

Organic  Matter, .  “  14 

esson  Sixth:  How  Plants  Grow, .  “  16 

ssson  Seventh  :  Nitrogen  in  Plants,  and  whence  they 

obtain  it, .  “  17 

esson  Eighth  :  Use  of  Manures,. . . . .  “  19 

esson  Ninth  :  Lime,  Marl  and  Ashes.  Animal  and  Veg¬ 
etable  Manures — the  difference  between  them. — 

Bones,  Ac., .  “  21 

esson  Tenth:  More  about  Nitrogen, .  “  23 

esson  Eeeventh  :  Sawdust,  Ac.  Flow  of  Sap.  Mode 

of  Manuring.  Depth  of  Plowing,  Ac .  “  24 

esson  Twelfth.  Fermentation.  Compost  Heaps. — 

Lamp-black,  Ac., . .  “  27 


esson  Thirteenth.  Sand,  Clay,  Ac.  More  about  Com¬ 
post  Heaps.  Top-dressing, . .  “  29 

esson  Fourteenth  :  Green  Manures.  Commercial  Fer¬ 
tilizers,  Ac .  “  33 


esson  Fifteenth  :  Preparation  of  Manures, .  “  35 

esson  Sixteenth:  Ploughing;  Harrowing,  Ac., .  “  36 

esson  Seventeenth  :  Advantages  of  Improved  Modes  of 

Cultivation.  Cotton  ;  space  between  rows,  Ac. , .  “  37 


esson  Eighteenth  :  Ditching, .  “  38 

esson  Nineteenth  :  Resting  Land, .  “  39 


\J> 

0 


% 


This  little  volume  lias  been  prepared  to  meet  a  want  which  the 
thor  has  long  felt  in  his  own  school. 

Very  few  of  the  young  men  of  the  country  can  hope,  if  it  were 
sirable,  to  succeed  in  any  of  the  so-called  learned  professions. — 
le  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  the  business  to  Which  a  very  large 
ijority  of  them  must  direct  their  energies. 

Notwithstanding  this  fact,  very  few  of  our  schools  seem  to  regard 
e  science  of  farming  as  worthy  of  any  attention  ;  and  probably 
e  chief  cause  of  this  is,  that  we  have  never  had  a  suitable  text- 
>ok. 

The  works  of  Liebig,  Johnston,  Stockliardt,  and  others,  are  not 
ited  to  the  capacity  of  those  who  are  not  acquainted  with  Chem- 
;ry  ;  and  even  to  those  who  can  comprehend  them,  their  views 
em  often  to  conflict  with  the  teachings  of  nature. 

This  volume  is  offered  to  the  teachers  of  North  Carolina  in  the 
>pe  that  they  will  find  it  of  some  value  in  arousing  a  spirit  of 
quiry  among  their  pupils,  in  regard  to  the  long  neglected  subject 
which  it  treats.  If  it  contains  errors,  the  author  will  be  no  less 
eased  than  they  will,  in  having  them  exposed.  His  experience  in 
actical  farming  is  very  limited,  as  the  reader  cannot  fail  to  dis- 
ver,  and  he  has  never  conversed  with  a  practical  farmer  who,  at 
■st,  agreed  with  him  ;  but  after  a  full  discussion  of  liis  views, 
eir  correctness  has  seldom  been  denied,  and  it  is  this  fact  which 
ls  encouraged  him  to  present  them  to  the  public. 


B.  F.  GRADY,  Ji\ 


Neuse  River  Academy, 

Wayne  County,  N.  C.,  June,  1867, 


t 


t 

* 


4 


* 


atomism. 


LESSON  FIRST. 

Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature. 

Question.  The  earth  and  its  inhabitants  are  divided  into  three 
isses  or  kingdoms.  Can  you  tell  me  what  they  are  ? 

Answer.  Those  objects  which  do  not  possess  life,  as 
e  land,  the  water  and  the  atmosphere,  are  classed  as 
e  Mineral  Kingdom  ;  those  which  possess  life,  without 
e  power  of  locomotion- — the  trees  and  the  plants — are 
issed  as  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  ;  and  those  which  are 
dowed  with  both  life  and  locomotion,  are  called  the 
nimal  Kingdom. 

Q.  What  supports  the  growth  of  the  Yegetable  Kingdom  ? 

A.  Elements  or  food  furnished  by  the  Mineral  King- 
»m. 

Q.  What  supports  the  growth  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  ? 

A.  The  Animal  Kingdom  lives  on  both  the  others* 
le  Mineral  Kingdom  supplies  it  with  water  and  air, 
d  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  supplies  it  with  the  elements 
its  flesh,  bones,  hair,  &c. 

Q.  Do  not  plants  derive  nourishment  from  the  Animal  Kingdom? 
A.  Yes  ;  when  an  animal  dies,  its  body  undergoes  a 
ange,  and  is  re-converted  into  its  mineral  constituents, 
.d  then  serves  as  food  for  plants.  The  case  is  the  same 
ien  a  plant  dies. 

Q.  All  plants  and  animals  were  once  earth,  air,  and  water,  then? 
A.  Yes  ;  and  will  become  so  again. 

Q.  If  that  be  so,  some  of  the  substances  which  compose  my 
dy  may  have  been  derived  from  the  moss  of  Lapland,  or  the 
ge  serpents  of  South  America.  Is  that  the  belief  of  philoso- 
ers  ? 


f 


8  Structure  and  Composition  of  the  Earth's  Crust. 

A.  Yes  ;  nothing  is  lost  or  destined.  When  wooc 
or  flesh  rots,  it  undergoes  nearly  the  same  changes  as  whei 
consumed  by  Are.  It  is  ’converted  principally  into  vapor, 
and  gases,  which  are  carried  by  the  winds  to  distant  parti 
of  the  earth.  Thus  your  body,  when  decayed,  may  fur 
nish  food  for  the  tea  plants  of  China,  or  the  vineyards  o 
France. 


LESSON  SECOND. 

Structure  and  Composition  of  the  Earth's  Crust , 

Q.  In  order  to  arrive  at  a  proper  understanding  of  the  mode  i 
which,  and  the  sources  from  which,  vegetables  obtain  their  food 
we  must  have  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  constitution  and  structur 
of  the  earth’s  surface,  and  of  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere 
We  will  begin  with  the  earth.  Caii  you  tell  me  its  condition  as  fa 
down  as  the  roots  of  trees  reach  ? 

A.  Mines,  railroad  cuts,  wells  and  hillsides  show  tha 
the  earth's  crust  is  composed  of  layers,  or  strata,  of  vari 
ous  substances  and  various  thicknesses.  The  top  stratun 
is  generally  sand  or  clay ;  the  next  one  is  clay,  sand 
pebbles,  sandstone,  ironstone,  limestone,  or  some  othe 
rock.  In  some  places  we  see  several  thin  layers ;  ii 
others  not  more  than  one  or  two  thick  ones  are  exposed. 

Q.  Do  these  strata  occupy  a  horizontal  position. 

A.  No ;  they  are  neither  horizontal  nor  continuous 
Their  continuity  is  very  much  broken  by  water  courses 
the  streams  having  cut  their  channels,  in  some  places 
through  several  strata.  In  some  instances  they  are  hor 
izontal  throughout  a  considerable  district. 

Q.  What  do  we  find  in  these  strata,  besides  the  substances  yoi 
mentioned  ? 

A.  Salts  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  &c.,  water 
and  compounds  containing  sulphur,  phosphorus  and  othe 
substances  which  plants  and  animals  require, 

Q.  What  is  potash  ? 


Structure  and  Composition  of  the  Earth's  Crust .  9 


A.  It  is  the  substance  which  we  extract  from  the 
ashes  of  certain  trees  for  the  manufacture  of  soft  soap. 
When  purified,  it  is  sold  in  the  shops  as  “  concentrated 
lye,”  pearl  ash,  saleratus,  &c. 

Q.  What  is  soda  ? 

A.  A  substance  resembling  potash.  It  is  extracted 
Prom  sea-salt,  or  the  ashes  of  sea  weeds,  and  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  hard  soap,  and  as  a  substitute  for 
^east  in  making  light  bread. 

Q.  Wliat  is  magnesia  ? 

A.  It  is  a  white  powder,  also  resembling  potash,  and 
is  extracted  from  certain  rocks.  It  is  used  as  a  medicine. 

Q.  Are  these  substances  necessary  elements  in  the  structure  of 
plants  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  there  is  no  vegetable  which  does  not  yield 
an  appreciable  quantity  of  ashes  when  consumed.  These 
ashes  are  potash,  soda,  lime  or  magnesia,  and  generally 
more  or  less  of  each.* 

Q.  There  is  some  mystery  about  this.  There  are  fields  which 
rave  produced  crops  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  without  ever 
laving  had  any  manure,  ashes  or  lime  put  on  them,  and  the  crops 
ire  as  good  to-day  as  they  were  fifty  years  ago  ;  notwithstanding 
his,  no  one  of  these  salts  appears  in  the  soil,  in  any  sensible  quail- 
ity.  Moreover,  if  I  should  remove  all  the  dirt  from  around  the 
roots  of  a  black-jack  and  lixiviate  it,  I  should  scarcely  be  able  to 
letect  any  potash  in  it.  How  do  you  explain  this  ? 

A.  The  several  strata  composing  the  earth’s  crust,  as 
;aid  before,  contain  all  the  salts  needed  by  plants,  and 
ve  can  readily  understand,  therefore,  that  the  supply  is 
nexhaustible,  and  we  shall  only  have  to  explain  how  they 
ire  brought  within  reach  of  the  roots. 

Q.  You  mean,  then,  that  the  salts  are  brought  to  the  roots,  in¬ 
stead  of  the  roots  going  after  the  salts  ? 

A.  Yes;  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  earth’s 
surface  causes  a  continual  flow  of  water  upwards  from 
:he  depths  of  the  earth,  which  brings  up  the  potash, 
soda,  &c\,  in  solution.  You  know  that  they  are  soluble 
n  water. 

*  Ashes  contain  other  substances  which  will  be  mentioned  in  due  time. 


10  How  Plants  are  Supplied  with  Moisture ,  dec. 


Q.  Lime  is  not  soluble  in  water,  is  it  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  ovsters,  clams,  &c.,  in  the  oceans,  and  mus- 
cles,  in  the  rivers  and  creeks,  construct  their  shells  outot 
the  lime  which  they  find  in  the  water. 

Q.  Whence  do  rivers  and  creeks  obtain  their  lime  ? 

A.  In  some  countries  there  are  immense  beds  of  mar¬ 
ble,  chalk  and  limestone,  and  where  these  are  wanting, 
we  generally  find  beds  of  marl.  All  these  are  salts  of 
lime,  and  are  gradually  dissolved  by  the  rains  and  washed 
into  the  streams. 


LESSON  THIRD. 

How  Plants  are  supplied  ivith  Moisture ,  Potash ,  &c. 

Q.  Can  you  now'  tell  me  what  becomes  of  the  water  that  falls 
on  the  earth  ? 

A.  One  portion,  if  there  be  much  of  it,  runs  into  the 
creeks  directly  ;  the  rest  soaks  into  the  ground  and  de¬ 
scends  to  an  impervious  stratum  ;  here  it  stops,  occupying 
the  level  of  the  wells  in  the  neighborhood. 

Q.  What  is  an  impervious  stratum  ? 

A.  A  layer  of  clay,  or  some  rock  through  which  water 
does  not  penetrate,  or  very  sparingly,  if  at  all. 

Q.  What  becomes  of  it  then  ? 

A.  If  that  impervious  stratum  slopes  in  any  direction, 
the  water  follows  the  slope,  until  it  comes  to  the  boun¬ 
dary  or' edge  of  the  stratum.  If  it  terminates  on  a  hill¬ 
side,  the  escape  of  water  is  often  so  abundant  that  the 
earth  there  is  veiy  damp,  and  sometimes  the  water  issues 
in  streams  constituting  springs. 

Q.  That  reminds  me  of  a  strange  phenomenon  I  have  often 
witnessed  :  I  recollect  a  small  branch  which  crosses  a  road,  and  X 
have  often  observed  that  although  running  briskly  in  the  morning, 
it  would  be  dry  in  the  evening.  Can  yon  explain  it  ? 


How  Plants  are  Supplied  with  Moisture ,  dec.  11 

A.  When  the  atmosphere  is  dry  and  the  sun  is  slu¬ 
ng.,  the  water  which  issues  from  the  hillsides  to  supply 
iat  stream  is  evaporated  ;  hut  if  the  atmosphere  is  damp 
is  unable  to  absorb  the  water  as  it  comes  out,  and  con- 
quently  it  accumulates  in  a  sufficient  abundance  to 
rm  a  current.  Night  would  also  favor  this. 

Q.  Why  is  this  occurrence  a  sign  of  rain  ? 

A.  Because,,  when  we  see  water  running  in  such  places 
e  know  that  the  atmosphere  must  be  very  damp,  and 
nsequently  a  rain  is  reasonably  expected. 

Q.  Well,  a  sharp-eyed  farmer  ought  to  be  able  to  be  his  own 
>ather  table.  But  you  mentioned  an  upward  current  of  water  ? 

A.  Yes ;  besides  the  lateral  escape  just  described,  there 
always  an  upward  flow  to  supply  the  loss  created  by 
rface  evaporation.  As  soon  after  a  rain  as  the  sun 
id  atmosphere  have  dried  the  surface  of  the  earth,  ca¬ 
llary  attraction  brings  up  more  water  to  moisten  it. — - 
lis  is,  in  turn,  evaporated,  and  leaves  room  for  more 
>m  below.  This  current,  you  recollect,  fetches  up  the 
bash,  &c.,  to  the  roots  of  plants. 

As  our  crops  do  not  extract  from  the  water  all  the  salts  it 
s  in  solution,  there  must  be  an  accumulation  of  them  in  the  soil, 
er  two  or  three  weeks  dry  weather.  What  do  you  think  is  the 
isequence  ? 

A.  The  pores  of  the  soil  become  choked,  and  prevent 
e  further  escape  of  moisture.  The  ascent  of  these  salts 
of  course,  stopped,  and  the  crop  languishes. 

How  can  this  be  remedied  ? 

A.  By  stirring  the  land  or  breaking  its  crust. 

J.  Why  does  a  heavy  rain  injure  a  crop  ? 

A.  Chiefly  by  patting  the  soil  down,  and  thus  lessen- 
r  its  porosity ;  but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  an  excess  of 
iter  dissolves  and  carries  down,  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
3ts,  all  the  soluble  substances  in  its  passage.  In  this 
se  the  injury  must  be  considerable. 


12 


liotation  of  Crops ,  (be. 

LESSON  FOURTH. 


^Rotation  of  Crops ,  cfic. 

Q.  Why  does  it  damage  land  to  plant  one  sort  of  vegetable  or 
it  every  year  ? 

A.  Every  species  of  plants  requires  a  certain  propor¬ 
tion  of  each  of  the  inorgonic  elements  (salts)  in  the  soi" 
to  insure  its  vigor.  As  every  plant  extracts  from  the 
earth  more  of  one  salt  than  of  the  others,  of  course  e 
repetition  of  the  same  for  a  number  of  years  destroys  the 
due  proportion. 

Q.  How  would  you  remedy  this  ? 

A.  I  would  restore  the  deficient  salt  to  the  soil,  01 
plant  some  crop  which  would  remove  the  other  salts  ir 
larger  proportion  k 

Q.  You  do  not  understand,  then,  that  land  is  exhausted  wher 
it  fails  to  produce  the  same  crop  repeatedly  for  a  number  of  years* 

A.  By  no  means. 

Q.  Do  you  think  there  is  any  difference  in  lands,  in  this  respect  ! 

A.  Yes ;  if  the  impervious  stratum  or  water  bed  b( 
several  feet  below  the  surface^  there  is  so  much  room  foi 
diffusion,  that  years  may  elapse  before  any  salt  can  be 
come  injuriously  deficient.  There  are  many  fields  ir 
Eastern  Carolina  which  have  produced  crops  of  corn  and 
peas  together  for  scores  of  years,  and  supply  potash,  lime 
&c.,  now  as  abundantly  as  ever. 

Q.  May  not  these  two  plants  counterbalance  the  action  of  eacl: 
other,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  proper  proportion  of  the  salts  ? 

A.  Perhaps  they  do.  Analysis  shows  that  corn  re¬ 
moves  from  the  earth  much  more  of  potash  and  soda  than 
of  lime  and  magnesia ;  while  peas  exactly  reverse  the 
case,  removing  much  more  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

Q.  Planting  these  together,  then,  is  about  the  same  as  a  rotation 
of  crops  ? 

A.  Yes ;  and  here-  we  have  a  striking  proof  of  the 
goodness  of  God.  Corn  and  peas  are  both  valuable  arti¬ 
cles  of  food  for  man  and  beast,  and  planted  together  they 


Botation  of  Crops,  dfcc.  13 

carcely  make  any  impression  on  the  mineral  constituents 
if  soils. 

Q.  What  is  the  case  if  the  water-bed  be  near  the  surface  ? 

A.  Of  course,  one  year’s  growth,  of  peas,  for  example, 
aay  remove  enough  of  lime  and  magnesia  to  destroy  the 
Lue  proportion. 

Q.  How  could  that  be  remedied  ? 

A.  In  no  other  manner  than  by  restoring  to  the  soil 
he  salt  or  salts  which  it  needs. 

Q.  Does  the  earth  furnish  anything  else  to  our  crops  besides 
hat  you  have  mentioned  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  iron  rust  and  sand  are  found  in  the  ashes  of 
lmost  all  plants,  and  the  rust  of  manganese  in  those  of 
few.  Sand  is  dissolved  in  the  soil  by  potash  or  soda, 
nd  carried  up  and  deposited  in  the  bark  and  leaves,  for 
he  purpose  of  strengthening  them.  The  sharp  edges  of 
rass  leaves  depend  for  their  firmness  on  the  sand  they 
ontain.* 

Chlorine,  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are,  also,  found  in 
he  ashes  of  all  cultivated  plants. 

Q.  What  is  chlorine?  *  . 

A.  It  is  a  greenish  gas  found  in  common  salt,  and  in 
ome  other  compounds.  Common  salt  is  composed  of 
his  gas  and  a  metal  called  sodium.  Calomel  is  the  same 
;as  and. quicksilver  combined. 

Q.  In  what  condition  does  sulphur  exist  in  the  earth  ? 

A.  Generally  combined  with  oxygen  gas  and  lime, 
a  gypsum,  or  with  the  same  gas  and  iron,  in  copperas, 
’hosphorus  is  generally  found  in  a  similar  condition.  It 
nites  with  oxygen  and.  lime  or  magnesia,  in  phosphate 
f  lime  or  phosphate  of  magnesia. 


14 


Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere ,  Ac. 

•  i 

’  LESSON  FIFTH. 

Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere ,  and  of  Organic  Matter. 

# 

Q.  Well,  you  have  pointed  out  the  sources  from  which  planl 
obtain  their  mineral  or  earthy  elements.  We  will  now  examii: 
the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere.  Can  you  tell  what  it  is  con 
posed  of  ?  . 

A.  Oxygen  and  nitrogen  gases  are  its  chief  constil 
uents. 

Q.  Tell  me  what  oxygen  gas  is  ? 

A.  It  is  the  vivifying  element  of  every  breath  w 
draw  ;  without  it,  all  animals  would  perish.  It  is  th 
substance  which  unites  with  the  fuel  in  our  fireplaces  an 
stoves,  and  carries  it  off- in  a  gaseous  condition  ;  withou 
it,  all  our  fires  would  go  out.  It  is  the  substance,  more 
over,  which  unites  with  iron  and  other  metals,  producin 
rusts  or  oxides,  and  with  lifeless  animals  and  vegetable; 
causing  them  to  rot  and  pass  away  in  a  gaseous  form. 

Q.  What  is  nitrogen  ? 

A.  Its  chief  office,  probably,  is  to  dilute  the  oxyger 
just  as  water  is  used  to  weaken  intoxicating  liquors.- 
The  action  of  pure  oxygen  is  too  energetic.  Wood  an 
other  combustibles,  when  set  on  fire  and  plunged  into 
vessel  of  oxygen;  burn  up  with  astonishing  rapidity,  an 
living  animals  very  soon  die  in  it. 

Q.  What  else  is  there  in  the  atmosjdiere  ? 

A.  Of  course  it  contains  all  the  gases  produced  b 
the  combustion  and  decay  of  wood,  &c.,  as  well  as  a] 
those  which  are  generated  by  the  putrefaction  of  animak 
manures,  &c.  The  odors  of  flowers,  too,  must  be  inclr 
ded. 

Q.  What  are  the  substances  in  plants  and  animals  which,  i 
decay  and  combustion,  combine  with  oxygen  and  pass  off  i 
gases  ? 

A.  To  answer  this  we  must  know  something  of  thei 
constitution.  You  are  awrare  that  a  large  per  cent,  c 


Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere ,  dee.  15 

limal  and  vegetable  matter  is  water.  Well,  if  we  cover 
)  in  hot  aslies  a  piece  of  flesh,  some  blood,  some  grains 
corn,  or  a  portion  of  any  other  organized  matter,  and 
t  it  remain  so  for  a  considerable  time,  all  the  wafer  will 
i  driven  off,  and  there  will  he  left  a  black  mass  which 
3  call  charcoal.  If,  now,  we  set  fire  to  this  charcoal  and 
b  it  burn  up,  there  will  he  left  a  small  quantity  of  ashes.* 
aat  which  is  consumed  is  what  chemists  call  carbon.  It 
rites  with  oxygen  and  produces  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Q.  That  is  remarkable.  How  do  you  account  for  the  color  of 
>od  if  it  consists  of  nothing  but  ashes,  water  and  carbon  ? 

A.  That  is.  probably  inexplicable.  Sugar,  cotton, 
irch  and  rice  have  the  same  constitution. 

Q.  That  makes  the  combustion  of  such  substances  a  •  simple 
Dcess.  The  oxygen  combines  with  the  carbon  Only,  producing 
L'bonic  acid  gas.  Does  carbon  ever  appear  in  the  pure  state  ? 

A.  Yes ;  the  diamond  is  pure  carbon,  and  black-lead 
plumbago  is  nearly  pure  carbon. 

Q.  How  can  there  be  such  a  difference  in  tln^ character  of  com- 
unds  haying  the  same  elements  ? 

A.  A  difference  in  the  proportion  causes  it.  There 
e  several  compounds,  however;,  which  have  the  same 
iments  in  the  same  proportion .  Nine  pounds  of  starch, 
t*  example,  are  composed  of  five  pounds  of  water  and 
ur  pounds  of  carbon ;  and  the  constitutution  of  cane 
gar  is  exactly  the  same. 

This  fact  enables  us  to  understand  why  a  yam  potato 
comes  sweeter  after  its  removal  from  the  earth.  Its 
irch  is  gradually  converted  into  sugar.  Slow  baking 
oduces  the  same  result. 

It  also  enables  us  to  understand  why  a  grain  of  corn 
ows  sweeter  at  the  time  of  sprouting.  Its  starch  is 
soluble,  and  cannot  serve  as  food  for  the  little  plant ; 
it  God  has  wisely  provided  that  it  shall  be  converted 
to  sugar,  so  as  to  become  soluble  !  The  same  is  true  of 
1  cereals. 


This  simple  analysis  must  not  be  considered  exhaustive  ;  heat  drives  oir  other  sub- 
nces  besides  water. 


16 


How  Plants  Grow. 


LESSON  SIXTH. 

How  Plants  Grow. 

Q.  If  organized  substances  were  to  continue  to  decay,  tlie 
would,  after  a  wliile,  use  up,  or  combine  with,  all  the  oxygen  of  tl 
atmosphere,  thus  producing  carbonic  acid.  Could  we  live  in  it  ? 

A.  No  ;  we  must  have  oxygen.  But  you  should  h 
able  to  solve  your  own  difficulty.  The  growing  planl 
are  continually  employing  carbon  to  build  up  their  ow 
bodies.  The  carbonic  acid  is  their  food  ;  they  absorb  i 
through  the  pores  in  their  leaves,  separate  the  oxyge 
from  the  carbon,  and  the  sap  carries  it  where  itisneede( 
The  oxygen  comes  back  into  the  atmosphere  for  us  t 
breathe.  Thus,  you  see,  how  beautifully,  as  well  as  wiseh 
the  beneficent  Creator  has  provided  for  the  sustenance  an 
comfort  of  His  creatures. 

Q.  .  I  thought  the  food  of  plants  was  taken  in  by  the  roots.  - 
"What  proof  have  you  that  your  account  is  correct  ? 

•  A.  There  are  some  vines  which  will  continue  to  gnr 
after  they  have  been  cut  off  from  their  roots  ;  I  saw  oni 
a  cactus,  or  prickly  pear,  growing  vigorously  on  top  of 
stone  wall,  three  feet  high,  where  it  had  been  placed  foe 
or  five  years  before  ;  a  poor  field,  if  properly  managet 
will  become  more  and  more  fertile,  without  any  artifick 
application  of  manure.  This,  of  course,  is  impossible 
if  the  earth  furnishes  the  nourishment.  Fence  rows  ai 
remarkable  instances  of  this  fact.  They  become  ver 

,  V 

fertile  after  a  few  years,  although  the  land  may  have  bee 
quite  barren  at  the  time  the  fence  was  laid. 

Q.  But  may  not  the  carbonic  acid  be  absorbed  by  the  moistm 
of  the  soil,  or  be  carried  down  by  rains,  and  thus  come  within  reac 
of  the  roots  ? 

• 

A.  I  believe  rain-water  is  not  found  to  contain  th: 
gas  in  any  appreciable  quantity.  Indeed,  water  does  nc 
appear  to  possess  much  affinity  for  it.  If  it  did,  a  copioc 
shower  of  rain  would  leave  very  little  of  it  in  the  atmo* 
phere.  But  the  fact  is,  no  amount  of  rain  has  ever  cause 
any  sensible  diminution  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmo* 
phere.  Moreover,  we  find  little  or  none  of  it  in  the  var: 


Nitrogen  in  Plants,  and  whence  they  obtain  it.  IT 

*  *  • 

us  bodies  of  water  on  the  earth,  which,  fact  disproves  the 
xistence  of  any  affinity  between  them.  It  is  true  some 
prings  are  impregnated  with  this  gas,  but  a  little  expo- 
ire  to  the 'atmosphere  soon  rids  them  of  it.  Thus  it  is 
ot  likely  that  any  water  carries  carbonic  acid  to  the 
Dots  of  plants. 

Q.  Your  reasoning  seems  conclusive  against  the  admission  of 
rge  amounts  of  this  gas  by  the  roots  of  plants.  Can  you  mention 
ly  fact  that  denies  the  .admission  of  any  at  all  ? 

A.  You  recollect  that  there  is  a  constant  flow  of  water 
’om  the  great  reservoir  under  us,  lip  to  the  surface,  to 
ipply  the  loss  by  evaporation,  and  to  bring  up  the 
otash,  &c.3  to  the  roots  of  the  crops.  It  seems  a  phys- 
;al  impossibility  that  this  water  can  carry  any  carbonic 
cid  into  the  roots,  because  it  has  none  to  carry.  This 
3  beyond  question ,  when  the  roots  reach  below  the  organic 
latter  in  the  soil,  as  in  the  case  of  trees. 


LESSON  SEVENTH.' 

Nitrogen  in  Plants ,  and  whence  they  obtain  it. 

Q.  Are  there  no  other  elements  in  plants  besides  those  you  have 
lentioned  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  is  found  in 
Dine  parts  of  .plants.  If  you  place  some  flour  dough  on 
piece  of  cotton  cloth  stretched  over  the  mouth  of  a  jar 
nd  pour  water  to  it,  you  will  after  awhile,  by  continually 
tirring  and  washing  it,  separate  it  into  two  parts.  One 
>art  will  be  starch  and  the  other  gluten.  The  starch,  as 
told  you,  is  composed  of  water  and  carbon.  The  gluten, 
fhich  is  a  viscid  substance,  contains  nitrogen. 

Q.  Is  there  any  general  difference  between  those  compounds 
ontaining  nitrogen  and  the  others  ? 

A.  The  former  undergo  decay  more  readily,  and  pro- 
luce  gases  much  more  offensive.  This  explains  the  dif- 
erence  between  lean  meat  or  muscle  and  fat  meat. 


18  Nitrogen  in  Plants ,  and  ivhence  they  obtain  U. 

Q.  Does  animal  matter  contain  nitrogen  too  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  and  in  a  mucli  larger  proportion  than  vege^ 
table  matter. 

Q.  Well,  now  tell  me  liow  plants  obtain  their  nitrogen.  Dc 
tlieir  leaves  drink  it  in  from  the  atmosphere,  as  in  the  case  of  car¬ 
bonic  acid  ? 

A.  This  question  is  in  considerable  doubt,  those  who 
seem  competent  to  consider  it,  differing  widely  in  their 
opinions.  In  order  to  enable  you  to  understand  what  is 
known  about  it,  I  will  inform  you  that  nitrogen  occurs, 
in  the  earth  and  atmosphere,  in  two  compounds,  nitric 
acid  and  ammonia.  Nitric  acid  is  a  compound  of  nitro¬ 
gen  and  oxygen,  commonly  called  aquafortis.  It  is  gen¬ 
erally  found  combined  with  potash,  forming  saltpeter. — 
In  this  state,  of  course,  it  can  be  absorbed  by  the  roots 
of  plants.  Whether  this  is  the  fact,  we  will  inquire  after 
we  describe  ammonia. 

Ammonia  is  composed  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen,  (the 
gas  which  unites  with  oxygen  to  produce  water,)  and  is 
commonly  called  hartshorn.  It  is  a  natural  product  ir 
the  decay  of  all  animal  matter.  You  can  smell  it  quite 
distinctly  in  horse  stables,  when  the  weather  is  warm. 

Q.  If  it  is  a  gas,  may  it  not  enter  into  plants  through  then 

leaves  ? 

A.  The  general  impression  is  that  rain  washes  it  intc 
the  earth  where  it  comes  'in  contact  with  the  roots,  but 
this  is  very  doubtful. 

Q.  If  the  rotting  of  manures  produces  ammonia,  cannot  the 
roots  absorb  it  as  fast  as  liberated  ? 

A.  Yes;  but  many  crops  grow  where  there  ia  nc 
manure — at  least,  animal  manure — and,  nevertheless, 
obtain  their  due  share  of  nitrogen.  Besides,  repeated 
experiments  have  satisfied  the  leading  Agricultural 
Chemists  that  certain  crops  have  removed  from  the  field 
twice  as  much  nitrogen  as  was  supplied  in  the  manure, 
evidently  some,  if  not  all,  of  it  came  from  the  atmos¬ 
phere.  .  Johnston’s  Agricultural  Chemistry  mentions  a 
"act  which  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  atmosphere  sup- 


Use  of  Manures. 


19 


plies  ammonia  directly  to  the  leaves  of  plants.  Sprengel 
states  “  that  it  has  very  frequently  been  observed  in  Hol¬ 
stein  that  if,  on  an  extent  of  level  ground  sown  with 
wheat,  some  fields  he  marled,  and  others  left  unmarled, 
Hie  wheat  on  the  latter  portions  will  grow  less  luxuriantly , 
and  will  yield  a  poorer  crop  than  if  the  whole  had  been 
unmarled.” 

Q.  How  ?  I  do  not  understand  you. 

A.  It  is  impossible  for  the  marled  fields  to  lessen  the 
amount  of  the  nitrates,  (saltpeter,  &c.,)  or  of  the  salts  of 
ammonia  in  the  soil  of  the  unmarled  fields  ;  hut  they  can 
diminish  the  available  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere. 

Q.  How  so  ? 

A.  The  atmosphere  sometimes  stands  nearly  still  over 
large  districts  of  country  for  several  hours,  and  even 
days.  Under  such  circumstances  the  healthy  and  vigor¬ 
ous  individuals  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  appropriate 
much  more  than  an  average  share  of  whatever  food  they 
find  in  it,  and  of  course  their  less  thrifty  neglrbors  suffer. 
I  will  mention  another  fact  which  confirms  this  .view  : 
There  is  no  nitrogen  in  mud,  although  it  is  one  of  our 
most  valuable  fertilizers,  and  often  causes  a  crop  of  corn 
to  he  twice  as  rich  in  nitrogen  as  it  would  he  otherwise. 
We  will  probably  recur  to  this  question  after  we  inquire 
into  the  philosophy  of  manuring. 


LESSON  EIGHTH. 

Use  of  Manures. 

Q.  Well,  really,  I  do  not  seetlie  use  of  manures,  if  your  account 
of  the  growth  of  plants  is  correct,  unless  it  be  to  supply  the  atmos¬ 
phere  with  carbonic  acid  gas  and  ammonia,  and  for  this  purpose 
they  might  as  well  be  in  the  stables  as  in  the  fields.  What  purpose 
do  they  serve  ? 

A.  Besides  what  you  have  mentioned,  they  keep  the 
ground  icarm. 


20 


Use  of  Manures. 


Q.  Is  that  all  we  gain  by  hauling  manure  into  our  fields  ? 

A.  Very  nearly.  It  is  well  known  that  plants  grow 
more  vigorously  in  warm  than  in  cold  climates.  They 
require  an  elevated  temperature  which  shall  be  constant . — 
In  our  latitude  the  sun  heats  the  earth  during  the  day. 
and  radiation  cools  it  during  the  night.  To  remedy  this 
evil  we  incorporate  with  our  soils  a  considerable  portion 
of  organic  matter  which,  iq  rotting,  generates  a  uniformly 
elevated  temperature. 

Q.  Why  does  the  rotting  of  manure  create  heat^? 

A.  I  have  already  told  you  that  the  combustion  o: 
organic  matter  and  the  decay  of  it  are,  with  scarcely  ar 
exception,  identical  processes.  The  oxygen  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere  combines  with  its  elements,  producing  heat  in  botl 
cases. 

Q.  That  is  the  cause,  then,  why  heaps  of  manure  become  s< 
hot  sometimes.  I  have  often  observed  that  when  pulling  up  potatc 
sprouts  the  manure  in  the  slip-bed  was  very  warm. 

A.  Yes  ;  and  you  had  then  a  striking  exemplification 
of  the  office  of  the  manure.  It  makes  the  potatoes  01 
slips  sprout  very  rapidly,  hut  gives  no  nourishment  to  tin 
young  plants,  because  they  have  no  roots  to  receive  it. — 
Moreover,  we  know  that,  in  favorable  weather,  potatoes 
sprout  even  when  lying  on  a  dry  plank  floor. 

Q.  Why  are  we  so  careful  to  rid  our  cornfields  of  grass  ?  Is  i 
not  because  the  grags  extracts  from  the  earth  the  nourishment  w( 
intend  for  the  corn  ? 

A.  Grass  shades  the  land  by  day/and  becomes  so  cool 
by  radiation  at  night,  that  it  reduces  the  temperature  o: 
everything  near  it.  In  this  way  it  injures  land.  If  you) 
supposition  were  correct,  one  year’s  growth  of  corn  and 
grass  together  ought  to  exhaust  the  soil  completely 
which  is  far  from  the  truth. 

The  experience  of  farmers  confirms  this  explanation 
At  the  time  when  the  ears  begin  to  form  on  corn,  and 
when,  of  course,  it  demands  its  most  valuable  nourish¬ 
ment,  grass  is  alloived  to  grow.  The  reason  is  that  th( 
summer  is  so  far  advanced,  and  the  earth  has  become 


Lime ,  Marl  and  Ashes,  dec. 


21 


arm  to  sucli  a  depth,  that  the  radiation  and  shading  of 
rass  cannot  injuriously  lower  the  temperature  of  the 
iil. 

Q.  Well,  tliat.is  remarkable.  I  have  always  had  a  very  differ- 
Lt  opinion.  Do  you  really  suppose  that  manure  supplies  no  food 
the  crop  growing  on  it  ? 

A.  The  rotting  of  organic  matter,  as  said  before,  pro¬ 
ices  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia.  These  are  both  gases, 
id  rise  lip  into  the  atmosphere  as  fast  as  generated.  They 
)  not  go  downwards.  If,  therefore,  the  manure  he  spread 
1  a  field,  the  crop  growing  there  will  he  continually  en- 
doped  in  an  atmosphere  fully  impregnated  with  these 
ises  ;  and,  consequently,  the  plants  will  he  able  to  ab- 
•rb,  through  their  leaves,  an  abundance  of  food. 


LESSON  NINTH. 

ime,  Marl  and  Ashes.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Manures  ; 
the  difference  between  them.  Bones,  dec. 

Q.  Why  do  persons  put  lime  and  ashes  on  their  fields  ?  . 

A.  Because  they  hasten  the  rotting  of  the  organic 
atter  in  the  soil,  and  thus  increase  its  temperature. — 
his  will  enable  *you  to  understand  why  many  farmers 
ive  become  opposed  to  the  use  of  lime,  declaring  that  it 
jures  land.  It  is  because  they  have  used  it  on  fields 
hich  contained  very  little  organic  matter  ;  in  which 
ses,  of  course,  the  organic  matter  very  soon  decayed, 
id  left  the  crops  in  the  cold,  at  the  most  important  period 
their  growth. 

Q.  Does  not  lime  serve  as  food  to  the  plants  ? 

A.  It  is  true,  plants  extract  a  small  quantity  of  lime 
Din  the  soil,  but  on  most  lands  they  find  as  much  as  they 
jed,  without  an  artificial  supply. 

Q.  A  farmer,  then,  should  not  put  lime  or  ashes  on  his  land, 
less  it  is  already  well  charged  with  organic  matter  ? 

A.  No.  The  advantage  of  putting  them  on  such  land 


22 


Lime ,  Marl  and  Ashes ,  dec. 


is  shown  by  the  effect  of  the  ashes  produced  by  the  bur 
ing  of  log  and  brush-heaps  in  our  rich  low-grounds. 

Q.  How  do  these  substances  hasten  the  decay  of  organic  matte 

A.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  that  que 
tion  is  probably  unanswerable.  We  simply  know  tl 
fact. 

tr  • 

Q.  Why  is  animal  manure  more  active  than  vegetable  manure 

A.  Animal  manure,  such  as  we  get  from  stables,  ho 
pens,  &c.,  is  more  energetic  than  mud;  turf,  leaves,  stra 
&c.,  because  it  rots  faster  and  generates  more  heat.  Y< 
recollect  that  compounds  containing  nitrogen  decay  mo 
rapidly  than  those  which  are  destitute  of  it. 

Q.  Did  you  not  state  that  nitrogen  is  found  in  plants  as  well 
in  animals  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  but  only  in  certain  parts  of  plants.  In  t 
ordinary  vegetation  of  our  country  nitrogen  does  e 
occur,  except  in  the  seeds. 

Q. .  I  see  now  the  reason  why  it  is  bad  policy  to  mix  lime 
ashes  with  horse-stable  manure  :  it  is  because  it  soon  destroys  \ 
animal  matter  out  of  it ; — is  it  not  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  in  that,  as  well  as  in  cow,  hog,  sheep,  go 
and  hen  manures,  there  is  a  large  per  cent,  of  nitrog 
compounds  which,  by  their  own  readiness  to-day,  hast 
the  rotting  of  the  whole  mass. 

Q.  How  do  you  explain  that  ? 

A.  Probably  by  the  abundance  of  heat  which  th 
impart  to  it  ;  but  this  is  not  certain.  We  may  be  unal 
to  give  the  true  cause.  I  have  little  doubt  that  electrici 
exerts  a  considerable  influence  in  the  case. 

Q.  How  do  you  account  for  the  action  of  marl  ?  I  have  hes 
of  numerous  cases  where  marl  applied  to  poor  land  enriched 
very  much.  Is  there  anything  in  it  to  rot  and  generate  heat  ? 

A.  Yes;  marl  consists  of  the  shells  and  remains 
innumerable  animalcules.  These  in-sects  have  been  lock' 
up  from  the  atmosphere  for  thousands  of  years,  probabl 
and  could  not  rot,  therefore.  When  the  marl  is  spre* 
on  a  field  and  mixed  with  the  soil  it  loses  its  tenacil 
and  becomes  sufficiently  porous  to  allow  the  oxygen 


More  about  Nitrogen . 


23 


i  atmosphere  to  come  into  contact  with  the  animalcules. 
u*see,  then,  that  marl  can  generate  heat. 

).  Is  not  lime  sometimes  applied  to  marshy,  “sour”  places 
h  good  results  ? 

A.  In  such  places  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  acids 
vq  been  produced,  which  are  injurious-  to  vegetation. — 
no  combines  with  or  destroys  them,  i.  e.,  makes  them 
'ay.  .  v 

).  What  effect  have  bones,  superphosphate  of  lime,  guano,  &c. , 
land. 

A.  Bones  consist  of  animal  matter — “jelly,  oil,  &c.— 
:1  phosphate  of  lime,  Guano  is  ‘composed  of  animal 
.tter,  phosphate  of  lime,  salts  of  potash  and  soda,  and 
Lster  of  Paris.  The  action  of  the  organic  matter  and 
5  potash  and  soda  needs  no  further  explanation.,— 
.osphate  of  lime,  plaster  of  Paris,  and  the  inorganic 
rtion  of  marl,  exert  a  stimulating  influence;  butprob- 
ly  one  effect  of  their  application  to  land  is  simply  to 
ninish  its  radiating  power ,  so  as  to  prevent  it  from 
ding  rapidly  at  night.  Some  of  the  phosphate  may 
ter  into  the  plants. 

A  plant  does  not  require  anything,  then,  but  earth,  air,  heat 
1  water  ? 

A.  Yes;  the  sun’s  rays  have  a  powerful  influence  on 
3  vegetation  of  the  earth,  and  as  I  intimated,  probably 
ictricity  is  no  less  powerful.  Plants  cannot  thrive  in 
e  dark. 


LESSON  TENTH, 

More  about  Nitrogen. 

1>.  You  promised  to  say  more  about  nitrogen  after  you  exam- 
d  the  philosophy  of  manuring.  In  Johnston’s  Agricultural 
emistry*  there  is  an  account  of  an  experiment  made  with  nitrate 
soda,  (soda-saltpeter, )  in  which  it  is  shown  that  a  wheat-field  was 
y  much  benefited  by  a  top-dressing  of  this  salt.  Is  it  not  likely 
,t  some  of  this  nitrogen  served  as  nourishment  for  the  wheat  ? 

Edition  or  1842, 


24  Sawdust,  dc.  Flow  of  Sap,  dc. 

A.  No  ;  this  appears  in  a  list  of  experiments,  in  whic 
it  is  also  shown  that  common  salt,  similarly  applied,  'pro 
diicecPa  greater  yield  of  wheat  than  the  nitrate -of  sod 
did ;  and  you  recollect  that  common  salt  is  composed  < 
chlorine  and  sodium.  The  difference  of  yieM  was  thre 
hundred  and  hoenty  pounds  of  grain  per  acre  in  favor  c 
the  salt. 

Q.  Yes  ;  but  this  wheat  weighed  only  sixty-two  pounds  to  tl 
bushel,  While  the  other  Weighed  sixty-three. 

A.  That  is  true  ;  hut  there  is  a  still  more  remarkabl 
fact  exhibited  in  the  same  table  :  A  mixture  of  salt  an 
lime  produced  wheat  which  weighed  sixty-three  and 
half  pounds  per  bushel.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  I  sup 

Eose  the  nitrates  affect  vegetation  just  as  lime  does,  b 
astening  the  decay  of  organic  matter,  and  lessening  th 
radiating  power  of  the  soil. 

Q.  Does  not  nitrate  of  soda,  when  put  on  grass  land,  or  o 
helds  of  wheat,  &c. ,  as  a  top-dressing,  cause  the  leaves  to  assume 
dark  green  color  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  but  even  then  the  yield  of  hay  or  grain 
less  sometimes  than  on  similar  land  where  no  nitrate 
applied. 

Q.  Howt  do  you  explain  the  color  ? 

A.  I  suppose  the  nitrate  stimulates  the  vital  principl 
of  the  plant  to  unusual  activity  in  the  preparation  c 
coloring  matter,  just  as  intoxicating  liquors  arouse  som 
men's  combative  dispositions. 


LESSON  ELEVENTH. 

Sawdust ,  dec.  Flow  of  Sap.  Mode  of  Manuring .  Dept 
*  of  Plowing ,  dc. 

Q.  What  is  the  action  of  pine  straw  and  sawdust  spread  over  a 
Irish  potato  patch  ? 

.A.  These  substances  prevent  the  sun  from  drying  th 
soil  and  producing  a  hard  crust  on  its  surface.  They  als 


Sawdust ,  dc.  Flow  of  Sap,  dc.  25 

revent  heavy  rains  from  packing  the  soil,  and  preserve  a 
niform  temperature. 

Q.  Does  sap  rise  in  the  Spring  and  descend  in  the  Fall  ? 

A.  No ;  there  is  a  continual  circulation  of  sap,  anal- 
^ous.to  that  of  the  blood.  It  ascends  through  the 
inter  or  heart  of  a  tree,  and  descends  through  the  outer  . 
arts  near  the  bark.  In  its  ascent,  it  carries  the  elements 
?  its  ashes,  obtained  from  the  earth ;  in  its  descent,  it 
irries  the  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  furnished  through 
Le  leaves.  The  case  is  the  same  with  corn,  wheat,  &c. 

Q.  Why  is  the  hark  of  most  trees  loose  in  the  Spring  ? 

A.  Because  such  trees  addfto  their  size  one  layer  per 
iar.  This  layer  is  commenced  in  the  spring,  and  is  at  ’ 
rst  nothing  but  a  liquid.  Being,  of  course,  between  the 
irk  and  the  solid  wood,  the  former  can  be  easily  peeled 
F.  .  • 

Q.  Why  will  a  green  water  melon  ripen  rapidly,  if  we  cover  it 
>  with  earth  ? 

A.  Because  the  rind  performs  the  same  office  that 
aves  do.  It  extracts  from  the  atmosphere  the  required 
mrishment.  When  buried,  therefore,  this  action  ceases 
id  the  vital  power  of  the  melon  directs  its  energies  to 
e  maturing  of  the  materials  on  hand — ripens  it. 

Q.  How  deep  should  we  put  manure  ? 

A.  If  we  place  it  on  top  of  the  ground,  it  will  soon 
come  dry,  (stable  manure,)  in  which  case  it  cannot 
adily  decay  ;  and  if  it  should,  its  heat  cannot  descend 
r  into  the  earth.  Consequently  the  corn  roots  will  stay 
sar  the  surface  where  it  is  warm,  and  if  there  be  much 
y  weather  they  will  suffer  for  water. 

!}.  Why  cannot  the  heat  descend  ? 

A.  Because  the  earth  is  a  bad  conductor,  and  the  up- 
ird  current  of  water  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  surface 
cool  as  itself.  This  is  proved  by  the  limited  depth  to 
rich  the  heat  of  very  large  fires  warm  the  ground. 

If  we  place  the  manure  very  deep  in  the  earth,  so  that 
e  atmosphere  cannot  come  into  contact  with  it,  it  cannot 


•  _ 

26  Sawdust ,  dtc.  Floiv  of  Saji,  &'c. 

rot,  and  will  be  useless.  The  depth  at  which  it  shou 
be. put  depends  on  your  mode  of  plowing. 

Q.  Why  so  ? 

A.  All  the  manure  below  the  furrow  which  yo 
plow  makes,  and  which  is  left  undisturbed,  does  little 
no  good,  because  the  oxygen  cannot  penetrate  it  and  cau 
it  to  decay. 

Q.  Do  you  think  we  should  stick  the  plow  in  as  far  down 
the  manure  extends  every  time  we  plow  ? 

A.  No ;  one  such  plowing  every  Spring,  just  befo 
planting,  is  sufficient.  To  obtain  the  best  results,  I  shou 
thoroughly  incorporate  my  soil  with  manure  to  the  dep 
of  fifteen  inches,  at  least.  To  do  this,  I  should  spread  < 
say  one  hundred  ox-loads  to  the  acre  and  plow  it  in,  ai 
should  repeat  the  operation  as  often  as  possible.  Afl 
the  soil  should  become  as  fertile  as  I  could  make  it 
should  lessen  the  dose  of  manure,  but  not  the  depth 
the  plowing. 

Q.  Would  it  not  do  to  apply  a  sufficient  amount  at  once  ? 

A.  Not  so  well,  if  it  were  farm-yard  manure, 
would  be  difficult  to  mix  it  thoroughly  with  the  soil,  ai 
the  heat  generated  by  it  would  not  be  uniformly  distri 
uted.  Besides,  I  should  be  afraid  there  would  be  t 
much  heat,  and  my  crop  would  get  u  fired,”  as  the  far] 
ers  term  it. 

Q.  Suppose  you  liad  mud  or  turf  ? 

A.  In  that  case  it  would  be  better  to  plow  in  a  fi 
supply  at  once. 

Q.  If,  in  the  Spring,  you  should  cover  up  an  ordinary  coat 
manure  with  fifteen  inches  of  earth,  you  would  render  the  la 
useless.  The  surface  would  be  barren  sand  or  clay,  and  the  atm 
phere  would  never  reach  the  manure. 

A.  That  is  very  true.  I  would  not  treat  my  whc 
farm  in  that  way  at  once,  unless  I  could  repeat  the  of 
ration  before  planting,  and  very  few  farmers  can  fu 
time  and  manure  to  do  this.  It  would  be  better  to  ta' 
a  small  piece  of  ground  at  a  time.  I  could  do  this  whe 
ever  I  should  have  the  manure  ready  and  time  to  spai 


21 


Fermentation.  Compost  Heaps^  dec. 

•  v/ 

would  not  require  many  years  to  prepare,  in  this  way, 
many  acres  as  I  should  need. 

If  you  used  mud  would  it  not  be  necessary  to  add  a  little 
le  every  Spring  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  unless  I  had  farm-yard  manure  enough. — 
)u  recollect  *tliat  I  told  you  that  animal  matter  rots 
ach  faster  than  vegetable  matter,  and  when  mingled 
th  mud  it  would  serve  the  same  purpose  as  lime. 


.  LESSON  TWELFTH. 

Fermentation.  Compost  Heaps .  Lamp-black ,  dec. 

Q.  Why  do  farmers  wait  for  compost  heaps  to  ferment  before 
ing  them.? 

A.  Because  fermentation  is  a  rapid  decay  which  dis- 
tegrates  or  pulverizes  the  solid  matter  of  the  heap. 

Q.  What  causes  this  rapid  decay  ? 

A.  It  is  caused  by  the  rotting  of  the  nitrogenized 
bstances — generally  animal  matter. 

Q.  Does  all  the  animal  matter  rot,  then  ? 

A.  That  depends  on  the  length  of  time  the  process  is 
lowed  to  go  on.  If  it  continues  Till  the  heap  begins  to 
ol,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  nitrogenized  compounds 
1  decay. 

Q;  The  ammonia  is  all  gone  then,  is  it  not  ? 

A.  Certainly ;  and  the  heap  is  pure  vegetable  matter. 

Q.  What  is  the  advantage  of  having  the  solid  substances  pul- 
rized  ? 

A.  They  can  be  uniformly  disseminated  through  the 
il,  and  can  decay  more  easily. 

Q.  How  can  they  decay  more  easily  ? 

A.  More  surface  will  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  oxy- 
sn  ;  just  as  a  pound  of  clean  iron-filings'  can  become 
,st  much  sooner  than  a  pound  of  the  same  metal  in  one 


28 


Fermentation.  Compost  -Heaps ,  do. . 

Q.  You  have  conveyed  the  idea  all  along  that  no  substam 
simple  or  compound,  found  in  our  ordinary  manures,  can  prod 
as  much  heat  as  those  compounds  containing  nitrogen.  Is  that 

A.  No.  Heaps  of  oily  rags  or  cotton  sometimes  ; 
sorb  oxygen  and  become  so  hot  as  to  blaze.  The  sa 
is  true  of  mixtures  of  linseed  oil  and  lamp-black,  if  i 
proportion  of  oil  is  small  or  the  mass  is  dry. 

Q.  What  is  lamp-black  ? 

A.  When  wood  is  burning  in  our  fireplaces,  a  sm 
quantity  of  the  carbon  rises  in  a  gaseouk  state,  and  me 
no  oxygen  until  it  has  become  too  cold  to  unite  with 
Consequently  it  passes  away  in  the  smoke  or  lodges 
the  walls  of  the  chimney.  This  is  lamp-black. 

Q.  Could  these  substances  be  made  available  as  manures  ? 

A.  Lamp-black  and  pounded  charcoal  have  been  m 
to  great  advantage  on  grass  lands.  Experiments  nr 
tioned  by  Johnston  show  that  while  salt  caused  an 
crease  of  one  ton  per  acre  in  the  hay  grown  on  a  cerk 
farm,  soot  caused  an  increase  of  eighteen  hundred  weig 
and  nitrate  of  soda  caused  an  increase  of  twelve-hi 
dred  weight.  They  were  used  as  top-dressings,  May  ! 
Thus  you  see  soot  is  a  better  fertilizer  than  the  nitrate 
soda. 

Q.-  Do  you  think  the  advantage  resulted  from  the  decay  of 
soot,  or  from  its  covering  the  soil  and  preventing  the  escape 
heat  ? 

A.  Probably  from  both. 

Q.  What  causes  cotton  seed  to  ferment  when  composted  w 
leaves,  turf,  &c.  ? 

A.  The  analysis  of  cotton  seed  shows  that  nearly  oi 
fourth  of  their  substance  consists  of  nitrogen  compoun 
They  contain,  also,  nearly  ten  per  cent,  of  oil.  It  is  nr 
likely,  therefore,  that  their  fermentation  is  the  result 
the  conjoint  operation  of  both  the  causes  mentioned  1 
fore. 

Q.  Is  it  better  to  make  compost  heaps  with  cotton  seed, 
spread  and  plow  them  into  the  soil  ? 

A.  That  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  soil. 


Sand,  Clay ,  dc. 


29 


ucli  larger  amount  of  manure  can  be  prepared  by  ma¬ 
tt  g  the  heaps,  and  I  think  the  seed  can  be  rendered 
ere  serviceable  in  this  way.  If,  however,  a  field  were 
ell  supplied  already  with  vegetable  matter,  especially 
ud,  it  would  be  better  to  plow  them  into  it. 

Q.  Are  there  other  seeds  which  could  be  used  in  a  similar 
inner  ?  .  . 

A.  .‘Yes  ;  if  we  had  enough  of  them. 


LESSON  THIRTEENTH. 

md,  Clay ,  dc.  More  about  Compost  Heaps.  Top - 

Dressing. 

•  v  •  , 

•  » 

Q.  Why  does  sand  put  on  stiff  mud  land  improve  it  ? 

A.  The  soil  is  rendered  porous,  so  that  the  water 
slow  can  escape  through  it,  and  the  oxygen  can  readily 
metrate  it.  Moreover,  corn  grown  on  mud  has  weak 
alks  and  is  easily  blown  down.  You  recollect  I  told 
)u  that  the  strength  of  the  stems  and  leaves  of  corn, 
^ass,  &c.,  depends  on  the  sand  in  their  composition. 

Q.  Does  not  the  addition  of  clay  often  benefit  sandy  soils  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  sandy  kind  is  too  porous,  generally.  It  al- 
ws  too  much  evaporation  of  moisture,  which  tends  to 
>ol  it;  and  oxygen  can  penetrate  it  so  freely  that  no 
’ganic  matter  can  remain  in  it  long.  It  soon  rots  out. 
he  application  of  clay  remedies  these ’evils;  and  the 
ime  may  be  said  of  any  other  tenacious  substances,  as 
iarl,  plaster,  &c.  •  . 

Q.  Might  not  sand'benefit  stiff  clay  land  on  the  reverse  prim 
pie?.  .  *  *  • 

A.  Undoubtedly.  If  such  lands,  however,  were  well 
barged  with  organic  matter,  that  would  render  it  light- 
nd  porous. 

Q.  What  other  substances  are  found  on  our  farms  which  could 
e  made  available  as  fertilizers,  besides  those  you  have  already 
pokeu  of  ? 


30 


Bandy  Clay,  dec. 


A.  One  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  manures  is  night 
soil;  because,  containing  a  very  great  amount  of  nitro 
genous  matter ;  it  can  be  used  in  compost  heaps  whei 
the  vegetable  matter  is  largely  in  excess  of  the  usua 
proportion.  The  carcasses  of  dead  animals,  the  blooc 
of  butcher  pens,  spoiled  fish,  &c.,  &c.,  are  equally  val 
liable.  • 

Q.  How  would  yon  apply  tliese  substances  ? 

A.  I  should  first  compost  them  with  leaves,  straw 
cornstalks,  and  any  other  convenient  vegetable  matter 
under  a  shed,  which  could  keep  off  both  sunshine  an< 
rain. 

Q.  Why  exclude  them  ? 

A.  Because  the  sun  would  drive  out  the  moistur 
without  which  nothing  can  rot  ;  and  the  rain  would  dis 
solve  and  wash  down  many  substances  essential  to  thi 
fermentation. 

Q.  In  making  these  heaps  what  sort  of  vegetable  matter  wouL 
you  use  ?  „ 

A.  Leaves,  straw,  cornstalks,  &c. 

Q.  Would  you  not  employ  mud  ?  ... 

A.  No;  the  object  of  such  heaps  is  to  pulverize  or 
ganic  matter,  and  mud  is  already  pulverized. 

Q.  Why  is  it  so  cold,  then  ?  ... 

A.  Because  the  amount  of  water  in  it  is  so  great  tha 
oxygen  cannot  penetrate  it,  and  even  if  it  could,  the  cool 
•ing  effect  of  excessive  evaporation  would  prevent  am 
great  elevation  of  temperature.  Spread  on  a  field  anc 
intimately  mixed  with  the  soil,  it  ceases  to  be  cold.  - 

Q.  What  is  mud  ? 

A.  It  is  little  else  than  charcoal.  In  some  countrie; 
it  serves  for  fuel. 

Q.  When  would  you  haul  out  and  plow  in  the  compost  heaps  ? 

A.  J ust  before  planting  corn,  and,  if  possible,  I  shoulc 
endeavor  to  arrange  for  the  fermentation  to  be  still  pro' 
grossing. 

Q.  Why  so  ? 


Sandy  Clay ,  &:c. 


31 


A.  Because  the  heat  generated  in  the  soil  would 
asten  the  germination  of  the  corn,  and  give  the  young 
lants  a  good  start  by  the  time  the  summer  heat  could 
elieve  that  of  the  fermentation. 

Q.  Did  you  not  say  tlie  sun’s  heat  is  not  sufficiently  uniform 
)r  the  purposes  of  vegetation  ? 

A.  For  cultivated  plants,  I  meant ;  but,  of  course,  the 
arth  grows  warmer  as  Spring  advances. 

Q.  You  make  a  distinction  between  the  heat  of  fermentation  and 
rat  caused  by  the  rotting  of  pure  vegetable  matter ,  as  leaves  and 
fcraw  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  the  latter  is  more  uniform. 

Q.  Would  such  manure  improve  wheat  land  ? 

A.  My  impression  is  that  ft  would  not.  If  put  on 
ast  before  planting,  the  heat  of  fermentation  would  cause 
rapid  germination  of  the  seeds  ;  but  all  the  nitrogen- 
us  compounds  would  be  exhausted  before  Spring  ;  thus 
he  transition  from  a  very  warm  to  a  comparatively  cold 
oil  would,  no  doubt,  injure  wheat. 

Q.  Does  the  experience  of  farmers  accord  with  this  view  ? 

A.  I  am  not  informed.' 

Q.  Suppose  the  fermentation  were  completed,  might  not  an 
plication  of  such  manure  be  beneficial  ? 

A.  Of  course.  In  that  case  the  decay  of  the  organic 
latter  would  be  uniform. 

Q.  Could  we  not  hasten  that  decay  early  in  Spring  by  top- 
ressings  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  a  coat  of  plaster,  common  salt,  marl,  leached 
shes,  soot  or  pulverized  charcoal  would  answer  this  pur- 
ose. 

Q.  Why  not  lime  or  unleaclied  ashes  ?  You  said  they  were  very 
owerful  in  hastening  the  decay  of  organic  matter. 

A.  True ;  but  you  must  remember  the  young  wheat 
5  organic  matter.  Besides,  too  sudden  an  elevation  of 
3mperature  would  do  more  harm  than  good. 

Q.  Which  of  the  substances  enumerated  do  you  think  the  best? 
A.  No  one  of  them  would  be  best  for  all  lands.  So 
ir  as  experiments  show,  common  salt  appears  to  be  the 


32 


Sand,  Clay ,  dec. 


best  on  heavy  loam.  I  should  prefer  something  less  sol¬ 
uble,  as  marl  or  plaster,,  on  sandy  land.  It  is  to  he  re¬ 
gretted,  however,  that  our  people  have  never  adopted 
any  general  system  of  experimenting,  and  we  are  sadl} 
in  the  dark  in  regard  to  this  important  question. 

Q.  Ought  not  every  farmer  to  make  his  own  experiments  ? 

A.  It  would,  no  doubt,  he  better.  An  acre  of  ground 
well  supplied  with  organic  matter,  could  be  sown  in  wheal 
at  the  proper  time,  and  early  in  the  Spring,  say  from  the 
1st  to  the  15tli  of  April,  it  could  be  divided  into  lots  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  number  of  stimulants  intended  to  be  ap¬ 
plied.  . 

Q.  How  much  salt  would  you  put  on  an  acre  ? 

A.  Experiment  could  give  the  best  answer.  The  lol 
intended  for  salt  could  be  subdivided  into  several  parcek 
and  a  different  quantity  of  salt  applied  to  each.  In  this 
way  a  farmer  could  gain  most  important  knowledge,  in 
one  year,  at  a  very  trifling  cost. 

Q.  Is  there  no  animal  substance  that  could  be  employed  as  ( 
top-dressing  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  dried  blood,  the  dried  manure  from  poultr} 
yards,  &c.,  &c.,  would  be  valuable  ;  but  they  would  have 
to  be  in  powder,  and  there  would  be  danger  of  applying 
too  much.  They  should  be  used  with  caution. 

Q.  Might  not  guano  serve  a  good  purpose  as  a  top-dressing  ? 

A.  Undoubtedly  ;  and  so  might  lime,  if  it  were  mixed 
with  some  substance  which  would  prevent  it  from  coming 
in  direct  contact  with  the  tender  parts  of  the  young 
plants. 

Q.  Why  is  liorse-stable  manure  better  than  cow-pen  manure  ? 

A.  Because  the  former  contains  a  much  larger  pei 
cent,  of  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  consequently  gen¬ 
erates  more  heat,  .  . 

Q.  Why  is  cow-pen  manure  better  for  turnips  ? 

A.  Because  turnips  do  not  require  a  very  warm  soil : 
and  there  may  be  other  reasons. 


Green  Manures.  Commercial  Fertilizers ,  dc.  33 

LESSON  FOURTEENTH-. 

Green  Manures .  Commercial  Fertilizers ,  dc. 

Are  not  green  crops  sometimes  plowed  in  as  manure  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  for  small  grain  particularly.  Peas  are  prob- 
ly  the  most  valuable  crop  among  us  for  this  purpose  ; 
:hougli  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  crab-grass,  in 
dricts  where  it  thrives,  can  be  made  to  serve  as  good  a 
rpose,  at  less  cost. 

*).  How  could  you  get  seed  enough  ? 

A.  I  should  need  none.  The  earth  preserves  an 
undance  of  seed,  as  is  proved  by  the  trouble  farmers 
ve  in  ridding  their  crops  of  this  grass. 

'  What  would  be  necessary  for  you  to  do  ? 

A.  Simply  to  give  the  land  intended  for  wheat  a  thor- 
gh  plowing  in  the  Spring,  so  as  to  insure  a  good  coat 
grass  during  the  Summer. 

Why  will  not  these  green  crops  do  as  well  if  allowed  to  ripen 
l  become  dry  ? 

A.  They  will  not  decay  so  readily. 

How  deep  would  you  cover  a  green  crop  ? 

A.  Not  very  deep.  I  should  be  governed  by  the  depth 
which  the  roots  of  wheat  extend. 

}.  Can  this  mode  of  manuring  be  adopted  with  advantage  for 
n  ?  *  •  . 

A.  That  would  depend  on  the  accessibility  of  mud. 
pea  crop  might  cost  more  than  ah  equal  amount  of  or- 
nic'  matter  supplied  in  mud. 

}.  Do  not  peas  contain  nitrogenous  substances  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  but  these  would  complete  their  fermentation 

fore  they  could  be  serviceable  to  corn. 

j).  Would  you  advise  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  ? 

A.  There  are  few  crops  grown  on  our  farms  which  are 
t  also  consumed  on  them.  The  potash,  lime,  magnesia, 
la,  phosphorus  and  sulphur  removed  from  the  soil  are, 
jrefore,  not  carried  off,  and  can  be  readily 'restored  to 
)  fields  whence  they  were  extracted.  Cotton,  it  is  true, 


34  Green  Manures.  Commercial  Fertilizers ,  &c. 

when  grown  for  market,  -carries  off  a  small  per  cent, 
these  substances, — nearly  one  pound  in  a  hundred ;  bi 
this  loss,  on  the  farms  in  Eastern  Carolina,  where  tl 
land  is  light,  would  not  be  felt  in  a  century,  or  probah 
in  thousands  of  years.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  to 
that  the  soap,  salt,  lime,  copperas,  &c.,  brought  on  01 
farms,  return  to  them  many  of  the  inorganic  elements 
which  crops  deprive  them.  I  think,  therefore,  every  farr 
er  can  find  materials  on  his  own  land  for  manuring  pu 
poses.  •  *  . 

Q.  Suppose  he  cultivated  wheat  for  market  ? 

A.  In  that  case  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  pr 
vision  for  the  salts  carried  off  by  the  grains.  The  stra' 
of  course,  should  be  composted  and  returned  to-  the  fie 
whenee  it  came ;  because  its  ashes  contain  much  potai 
and  phosphorus. 

The  grains  contain  very  little  inorganic  matter,  t 
produce  of  one  acre  yielding,  on  combustion,  not  mo 
than  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  potash,  soda  and  magnesi 
and  not  more  than  twelve  ounces  of  lime. 

Here  I  will  mention  a  remarkable  fact  and  one  tendii 
to  confirm  the  views  I  have  already  expressed. 

Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  bone  dust  and  lime  do  n 
contain  any  magnesia  ;  they  consist  principally  of  lir 
of  which  wheat  grains  require  very  little.  Neverthelc 
they  are  the  most  common  fertilizers  for  wheat'  land.- 
The  supply  of  magnesia  must,  therefore,  come  from  t 
earth  ;  four  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Q.  Your  opinion  is  that,  if  an  acre  of  land  can  yield  annua 
four  pounds  .magnesia ,  for  an  indefinite  term  of  years,  without  bei 
artificially  replenished,  it  ought,  also,  to  yield  the  small  quant: 
of  twelve  ounces  of.  lime  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  especially  since  we  know  that  many  fiel 
have  been  annually  deprived  of  a  much  larger  proportic 
of  lime,  for  scores  of  years,  without  showing  the  lea 
sign  of  exhaustion. 

Q.  You  would  discourage  the  employment  of  commercial  m 
nures,  then  ? 


Preparation  of  Manures.  35 

L  Yes,  if  intended  to  serve  as  food  for  the  plants.  I 
nld  not  object  to  their  employment  as  top-dressings  or 
:ompost  heaps  to  hasten  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter, 
m  convinced,  however,  that  even  for  these  purposes, 
ry  plantation  furnishes  abundant  materials. 


LESSON  FIFTEENTH. 

*  * 

Preparation  of  Manures . 

.  How  would  you  obtain  the  largest  amount  of  manure  from 
animals  on  your  farm  ?  .  *  . 

L  I  should  erect  good  stables,  one  for  each,  into 
ich  sunshine  and  rain  could  never  enter.  If  possible, 
floors  should  he  water-proof  and  about  ten  inches  of 
walls,  also,  from  the  floors  upwards. 

'nto  these  I  should  spread,  every  week  or  fortnight, 
ves  or  straw  enough  to  cover  the  excrements  accumu- 
3d  in  that  time. 

\.t  the  end  of  every  two  or  three  months  I  should  re- 
ve  all  the  manure  from  the  stables  and  place  it  in  heaps 
convenient  size,  under1  sheds  so  situated  as  to  he  pro- 
ted  from  the  winds  as  much  as  possible. 

>.  You  would  have  no  open  lots,  then  ? 

A.  No.  In  such  places  the  sun  dries  manure,  and 
n  cools  it. 

).  Would  not  your  plan  consume  too  much  time  ? 

A.  Not  at  all.  Every  farmer  has  spare  time  enough 
such  work,  and  habit  would  soon  render  it  easy  and 
ivenient. 

y  Would  you  throw  soap  suds  and  ashes  on  these  heaps  ? 

A.  No.  *  They  would  check  fermentation  by  a  sudden 
struction  of  the  nitrogenous  matter.  Lime  would  do 
3  same. 

That  reminds  me  of  a  question  which  has  been  puzzling  me  for 
ae  time  :  How  does  salt,  as  a  top-dressing,  hasten  the  decay  of 


B6  Ploughing ,  Ptarr owing ,  do. 

Vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  ?  Did  you  not  say  that  salt  is  a  co: 
pound  of  chlorine  and  sodium  ? 

A.  How  salt  causes  the  oxygen-  to  combine  more  e 
ergetically  with  vegetable  matter,  is  a  question  I  a 
unable  to  answer.  We  know  that  a  piece  of  iron  w 
rust  much  faster  when  occasionally  moistened  with  sa 
water  than  it  will  if  the  water  be  fresh.  The  cause 
this  is  unknown  to  us  ;  but  whatever  it  is,  it  is  doubtk 
the  same  as  in  the  other  case. 


LESSON  SIXTEENTH. 

Ploughing  ;  Harrowing j  do.  *• 

,  t  j?  • 

Q.  I  think  I  understand  your  theory  of  the  action  of  nlanur 
Now  tell  me  how  often  and  how  deep  you  would  plow  your  cc 
land  after  planting  ? 

A.  After  preparing  mj  land  by  manuring  and  pulvc 
izing  to.  the  depth  of  fifteen  inches,  I  would  plant  u 
corn.  The  soil  would  then  be  sufficiently  porous  for  t' 
oxygen  to  penetrate  it  to  its  lowest  depths  ;  and  the  gas 
generated  by  its  decay  would  maintain  it  in  its  poro 
state.  ■  No  more  deep  plowing  would  be  necessary. 


Q.-  If  that  be -true,  no  more  plowing  at  all  would  be  required. 
A.  Yes  ;  you  recollect  there  is  a  crust  formed  on  t 


verized.  • 


Q.  That  crust  is  seldom  over  a  half-inch  thick,  and  can  be  bi 
ken  by  something  lighter  than  a  plow  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  I  should  use  a  broad  harrow,  which  cou 
pulverize  a  whole  row  by  going  up  and  down  once.  I 
so  doing  I  could  go  over  my  whole  crop  in  less  than  lis 
the  usual  time,  and  would  scarcely  fatigue  my  horse. 

Q.  You  would  leave,  in  this  way,  a  portion  of  grass  between  t 
hills  of  corn  undisturbed.  ‘ 

A.  True,  but  the  time  gained  in  harrowing  wou 
fully  suffice  for  weeding  this  out  with  a  hoe.  Even 


Advantages  of  Improved  Modes  of  Cultivation ,  dec,  37 

•  r 

* 

is  were  not  done,  tlie  advantage  of  the  liarrowing  is 
>r y  great,  when  we  consider  that  the  last  rows  of  a  crop 
inerally  suffer  much  before  the  plow  can  get  to  them. 

Q.  Do  not  heavy  rains  beat  down  the  surface  of  the  earth  and 
us  lessen  its  porosity  ? 

A.  Yes,  and,  of  course,  the  crust  thus  formed  needs 
ilverizing  ;  but  the  harrow  will  suit  just  as  well  as  in 
e  other  case. 

3-  How  often  would  you  harrow  your  fields  ? 

A.  Every  time  the  surface  should  become  encrusted. 


LESSON  SEVENTEENTH. 

Ivantages  of  Improved  Modes  of  Cultivation,  Cotton- 

Space  between  Bows ,  dec . 

If  farmers  were  to  adopt  this  mode  of  cultivating  their 
Lds,  what  would  be  the  increase  per  acre  ? 

A.  Instead  of  one  or  two  barrels  they  would  gather 
>m  eighteen  to.  twenty-three. 

Twenty-three  !  . 

A.  Yes;  some  years  ago  two  gentlemen  of  Nevvbern 
a  contest  of  agricultural  skill,  gathered  that  much  per 
re,  one  of  them  exceeding  it  by  a  tub-full  or  two.  Many 
nilar  cases  are  reported  in  the  newspapers. 

If  all  our  lands  were  improved  to  that  extent,  every  farmer 
ild  dispense  with  about  nine -tenths  of  his  present  enclosure. 

A.  Yes,  and  thus  save  an  immense  deal  of  labor  in 
icing,  ditching,  hauling,  plowing,  harvesting,  manur- 
y,  &c.,  &c.  He  would  save  time  in  every  conceivable 
partment  of  his  business,  and,  of  course,  could  pay  the 
ire  attention  to  his  manures.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
g  horses,  his  gear  and  his  plows  would  be  in  good  con-, 
bion  ;  his  barn  full  to  the  joists,  and  his  smoke-house 
3ming  with  its  abundance  of  meat  and  lard. 

5.  Would  you  apply  the  same  mode  of  culture  to  cotton  Z 
A.  Substantially  the  same. 


38  pitching. 

% 

Q.  Does  the  produce  of  a  crop  depend,  to  any  degree,  on  tl 
direction  of  the  rows  ? 

A.  Very  likely.  If  the  rows  lie  North  and  South,  i 
drilled  corn,  the  sun's  rays  do  not  reach  the  earth,  hut 
short  time  at  noon,  after  the  plants  become. nearly  grown 
hut  if  -they  lie  East  and  West,  the  sun  can  shine  on  tl 
ground. twice  every  day,  at  about  ten  and  two  o'clock,  ar 
a  good  while  each  time. 

Q.  What*  space  would  you  allow  between  corn  rows  and  1 
tween  the  hills  in  a  row  ? 

A.  Four  feet  between  rows,  and  one  foot  between  hi! 
Thus  I  could  put  ten  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixt 
four  plants  on  one  acre. 

Q.  Might  not  the  rows  be  placed  farther  apart  and  the  stal 
nearer  together  with  advantage  ? 

A.  That  would  depend  on  the  character  of  the  so 
and  experiments  made  with  one  crop  could  •  de term! 
that  question  for  any  farm. 

Q.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  “  character  of  .the  soil  ?” 

A.  I  have  reference  particularly  to  its  capacity  to  i 
tain  moisture,  and  consequently  to  its  natural  temperate i 

Q.  Some. farmers  are  careful  in  choosing  seed  corn.  Do  y 
think  it  is  worth  the  trouble  ? 

A.  Certainly.  Everything  that  grows  partakes  mo 
or  less  01  the  vigor  and  perfection  of  the  seed  from  whi< 
it  springs. 

A  farmer  should  gather  the  largest  ears  from  tho 
stalks  which  are  the  most  fruitful,  and  carefully  preser 
them  for  seed. 


LESSON  EIGHTEENTH. 

.  Ditching . 

Q.  Why  are  ditches  necessary  ? 

A.  Because  cultivated  plants,  with  few  excepti'or 
cannot  thrive  with  their  roots  in  standing  water ;  an 
besides,  when  the  soil  is  sobbed  with  water,,  oxygen  ca: 


Resting  Land. 


3£ 


it  penetrate  it  with  sufficient  ease,  and  excessive,  evapo- 
tion  diminishes  its  temperature. 

Q.  What  causes  certain  localities  to  be  too  wet  ? 

A.  In  some  places  the  impervious  stratum ,  before- 
entioned,  is  shaped  like  a  sauccer,  so  that  the  rain 
iter  which  soaks  down  to  it  cannot  escape.  When  it  gets 
11,  therefore,  and  its  surface  coincides  with  that  of  the 
rth,  the  soil  is  too  wet. 

A  ditch  dug  from  the  center  of  this  saucer,  in  any  co-n- 
nient  direction,  so  as  to  cut  through  its  side,  will  drain, 
e  land. 

In  most  instances,  however,  dampness  is  caused  by  a 
fference  in  the  inclinations  of  the  surface  and  the  water- 
d.  The  water,  in  following  the  slope  of  the  latter, 
mes  to  the  surface  long  before  reaching  a  place  where 
can  readily  escape. 

Q.  How  would  you  remedy  this  ? 

A.  By  a  ditch  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of 
e  slope  and  above  the  places  where  the  water  first  comes 
the  surface. 

Q.  How  deep  should  the  ditch  be,  and  where  would  you  have  it 
empty  itself  ? 

A.  It  should  be  dug  entirely  through  the  upper  stra¬ 
in  and  extended  from  its  lower  extremity  to  a  suitable 
vine  or  other  ditch. 


LESSON  NINETEENTH. 

Resting  Land. 

Q.  Why  does  resting  land  improve  it  ? 

A.  There  are  two  reasons  :  1st.  The  grass  and  weeds 
hich  grow  on  a  rested  field  are  a  valuable  addition  to 
3  elements  of  fertility.  '2d.  Crab-grass  and  other  weeds 
*  quick  growth,  are  much  less  troublesome  after  a  year’s 
ist,  • 


40  Besting  Land. 

Q.  How  do  you  account  for  the  latter  fact  ? 

A.  Crab-grass  does  not  thrive  on  uncultivated  land 
It  requires  the  soil  to  be  stirred  occasionally.  Conse¬ 
quently  there  is  less  of  its  seed  on  the  ground,  after  a 
year’s  rest. 


